Lucas v Dole Essay

In the Fall of 1987, plaintiff Julia Lucas appeals the dismissal of her job discrimination suit. Lucas, a white woman, argues that she was the victim of reverse discrimination when Rosa Wright, a less qualified black woman, was promoted to the Quality Assurance and Training Specialist position at her job. The judge dismissed the claim, finding that Lucas did not make out a prima facie case (Open Jurist, 2011). Statement of the Problem Both Julia Lucas, a white woman, and Rosa Wright, a black woman, work for the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). They both applied for Quality Assurance and  Training Specialist (QATS) positions at the Flight Service Station in Leesburg, Virginia. Both women, along with nineteen other applicants, were qualified for the two positions that were available. Edward Dietz, the official who interviewed the top four applicants, selected Rosa Wright and another woman named Sharon Hall as the best candidates to fill the positions. Edward Dietz did not consider Julia Lucas. Lucas believed she was reverse discriminated and took the case to court (Open Jurist, 2011). Findings of Fact It was verified that although FAA determined that all nineteen applicants were ualified, Wright did not have a current Pilot Weather Briefing Certificate at the time of her selection, a QATS job requirement. Lucas presented other evidence in order to show discrimination. She testified to the subjective nature of the interviewing process, which consisted of five general questions concerning the QATS position. She presented Lucas v. Dole 3 evidence that her answers were detailed and job specific, while Wright’s were broad and could apply to many jobs. Evidence also showed that in July 1985, Wright was given a temporary position involving education and training of students learning about the air raffic control system. The temporary position was not advertised to other workers in the customary way, and Wright was selected before some workers knew of the opening. Five other employees also testified that race may have been a factor in the selection of Wright and in other situations at the Leesburg facility. Favoritism there had helped create poor labor-management relations, although it is not clear whether the favoritism was racially motivated. The last piece of evidentiary support Lucas had was the comparison of her own professional experience and qualifications with those of Wright (Open Jurist, 2011). Impact in the Workplace Reverse discrimination is a controversial form of discrimination against members of a dominant or majority group, including the city or state, or in favor of members of a minority or historically disadvantaged group† (Wikipedia, 2011). Whether discrimination is reversed or not, Conclusions The judge dismissed the case, finding that Julia Lucas did not make out a prima facie case. In other words, it was not â€Å"based on the first impression; nor was it accepted as correct until proven otherwise† (Wikipedia, 2011). A prima facie case of unequal treatment by direct or indirect evidence of discrimination is under the McDonnell Douglas framework. To establish a prima facie case under the McDonnell Douglas framework, a plaintiff must show (1) she is a member of a protected group; (2) she applied and was qualified for a job that was open; (3) she was rejected, and (4) the job remained vacant. Lucas satisfies the basic requirements of McDonnell Douglas, except that the job did not remain open. In her testimony, Lucas admitted that she scored in the bottom third among the interviewees, and that those above her included blacks, whites and Hispanics. In conclusion, there was no evidence that racial discrimination was involved in Rosa Wright’s promotion. (Open Jurist, 2011).

The Benefits Of Cooperative Learning For Students Education Essay

Why the Cooperative Learning is good for ELL pupils? The range of this research paper is to show the importance of using the concerted acquisition groups to assist ELL pupils to accomplish English linguistic communication proficiency. How does cooperative larning benefit English scholars? David Noyes answers this inquiry with a profusion of research-based facts as it follows: it is non â€Å" endangering † promoting a low affectional barrier, which facilitates a better comprehensive input, the information provided comes from at least two beginnings, the instructor and equals, with the consequence of an improved keeping, and is strategic and purposeful through staging and differentiated direction. In add-on to already advert Multisensory Approach noticed by Noyes, Hammerken suggests that practising with a equal, experimenting different survey attacks help pupils achieve better on appraisals ( 2000, p.88 ) . In add-on, the concerted acquisition activities encourage sharing and edifice background cognition. The cultural, emotional, and geographical scheme of each pupil is enhanced through brainstorming, group treatments, the usage of in writing organisers, reappraisal of text, reappraisal vocabulary in context . Furthermore, an of import supporting statement is that it â€Å" maximizes the acquisition of English. † Noyes cites Cummings naming the co-op larning an â€Å" empowerment teaching method. † Dr. Cummings in his article Putting Language Proficiency in Its Topographic point: Reacting to Critiques of the Conversational/Academic Language Distinction stress the importance for pedagogues to do the differentiation between basic accomplishments and academic proficiency accomplishments, â€Å" I have suggested that in order to turn to these issues ( Critiques of the Conversational/Academic Language Distinction ) we need to do a cardinal differentiation between colloquial and academic facets of linguistic communication proficiency ( originally labeled basic interpersonal communicative accomplishments [ BICS ] and cognitive academic linguistic communication proficiency [ CALP ] † ( Cummings,19797 ) . The linguistic communication development for bilingual pupils is recommended, â€Å" by supplying pupils with extended chances to transport out undertakings look intoing their ain and their community ‘s linguistic communication usage, patterns, and premises † ( Cumm ings, 1979 ) , which are the features of concerted larning groups activities. Furthermore, Dr. Krashen in his article What is Academic Language Proficiency? explains that understanding and doing the difference between basic interpersonal linguistic communication accomplishments and Academic Proficiency accomplishments is of import for pedagogues in their attempt to back up linguistic communication acquisition, going the â€Å" cardinal end of linguistic communication learning plans. † The article ‘s accent is on the schemes employed to ease the linguistic communication acquisition on accomplishing the academic proficiency versus learning schemes that kids of course develop anyhow and consider, rote memorisation. The efficient schemes recommended for developing cognition of academic linguistic communication and content as they represent â€Å" one of the grounds for the success of bilingual plans â€Å" are ; triping the background cognition, the usage of images, realia, group treatments, narrow reading, and scaffolding for job resolution. All th e schemes indicated can be found in concerted acquisition groups activities. Another ground the Cooperative Learning groups are recommended for ELL pupils is that of the consequence of take downing the affectional barrier followed by the addition of comprehensive input, â€Å" the effectual linguistic communication instructor is person who can supply input and assist do it comprehendible in a low anxiousness state of affairs † ( Krashen,2009, 163 ) . Entire Physical Response as defined by Dr. Krashen ( 2009, p. 140 ) represents the pupil ‘s apprehension and reaction to teacher ‘s directions/commands and shows the degree of motive and engagement during the instructional procedure. The Cooperative Learning Group activities guarantee the entire physical response of the participants by leting the ELL pupils to travel over the submergence â€Å" soundless † phase through a low affectional barrier and reply when they are ready ( Krashen, 2009 ) . In add-on to the pro statements for Cooperative Learning Groups usage is the sum and quality of conversation involved. Harmonizing to Dr. Krashsen conversation, as a method to get linguistic communication proficiency, gives good comprehensive input, is interesting/relevant, and with the presence of a native talker has a low affectional filter. â€Å" Conversation will give the acquirer a opportunity to pattern the tools he has learned and give him possibly the best chance to get new 1s † ( Krashen, 2009, p.163 ) . Rothstein and Turnbull accentuate on instructor outlooks for pupils to utilize a logical-scientific type of discourse, which is really the formal academic linguistic communication as opposed to societal narrative. They suggest â€Å" bridging between narratives and academic discourse † by utilizing schoolroom direction structures which â€Å" promote pupil ‘s battle in signifiers of discourse that they do non utilize at place † ( Rothstein & A ; T urnbull, 2008, p. 140 ) . As a portion of the Bridging Cultures classrooms the collaborative acquisition is considered supplying the necessary support by furthering positive mutuality, on undertaking behaviours, and advancing academic discourse. Dr. Jimenez explains that pupils are of course supposed to interact during concerted acquisition activities which make monitoring academic address a must. She suggests expressed instruction, charting, and monitored pattern in order to heighten academic address maps. Freeman and Freeman, the writers of English Language Learners ; The Essential Guide, are to the full cognizant of the importance of developing the academic linguistic communication for EEL pupils. Besides, the writers recognize that the ELL pupils have troubles utilizing the formal English linguistic communication every bit opposed to a so called proficiency utilizing the insouciant linguistic communication. In order to develop the CALP and supply more context-embedded direction the writers suggest the usage of in writing organisers, working in concerted groups, and prosecute in hands-on activities which are the forms of concerted acquisition groups ; â€Å" When learning occurs in Quadrant C ( context embedded and cognitively demanding ) pupils develop the academic linguistic communication † ( Freeman, 2000, p. 155 ) . Supporting the subject, Echevaria and writers explain the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol as being the instructional theoretical account designed to assist bilingual pupils to accomplish English linguistic communication proficiency ; â€Å" Effective sheltered categories are characterized by a assortment of grouping constructions, includingaˆÂ ¦cooperative acquisition groups ( 2004, p.105 ) . Furthermore, â€Å" competent linguistic communication scholars actively prosecute these cognitive accomplishments, and research workers know these scholars are effectual, in portion, because they have particular ways of treating the new information they are larning â€Å" ( Echevaria, 2004, p.82 ) . The acquisition schemes considered by the SIOP theoretical account are the Metacognitive, Cognitive, and Social/Affective Strategies. These schemes that are employed through explicit instruction, mold, and scaffolding are the features of direction needed for a instructor implement ing concerted acquisition groups. Making the content comprehensible is done by using attacks as the usage of mnemonics, SQP2RS, PENS, GIST, Rehearsal Strategies, Graphic Organizers, Comprehension Strategies ( Echevaria, 2004 ) . The Sheltered Instruction Protocol is based on research which points out clearly that the grouping constellations has to be diverse â€Å" advancing the development of multiple positions and promote coaction. † Besides, as Noyes suggests every bit good, avoid grouping the low-average acting pupils with ELL pupils. The of import thought is that the ELL pupils get excess support in being grouped harmonizing linguistic communication proficiency degree, but merely for specific activities when excess support is needed ( paraprofessional monitoring, practising a specific linguistic communication impression, etc ) . The concerted acquisition grouping gives every pupil the chance to entree every bit the course of study ( Echevaria, 2004 ) . The writers of Teaching Students with Mild and Moderate Disabilities ; Research Based Practices, Cohen and Spenciner, acknowledge the benefits of concerted acquisition for pupils â€Å" both with and without disablements † ( 2005, p.235 ) , because they work collaboratively to accomplish academic public presentation. As a common note the ELL pupils and pupils with larning disablements have troubles understanding and using their cognition to job resolution and higher order believing accomplishments ( Cohen & A ; Spenciner, 2005, p.194 ) .The grounds are different of class, but the instructor ‘s attack is to rectify and better pupil ‘s public presentation by learning metacognition accomplishments. Consequently, the ELL pupils will larn how to believe and how to larn from their equals during concerted larning group activities following instructor ‘s mold and cues. A immense importance in the acquisition procedure is made by addressing/applying Gardener ‘s Multiple Intelligences Theory. Hammerken suggests that pupils are experimenting in their attempt to happen the one which supports their learning manner, â€Å" the most effectual method is the method that will capitalise on pupil ‘s strengths † ( 200, p. 87 ) . Noyes considers that â€Å" the multiple intelligences are a accelerator for distinction of direction in category † ( 2010 ) . The Cooperative Learning groups activities address and congratulate all types of MI including the interpersonal ( single work ) , intrapersonal ( pair-share ) which are harder to make utilizing other direction theoretical accounts. In decision, scaffolding on David Noyes ‘ reply to the inquiry â€Å" How does cooperative larning benefit English scholars? † we have explained the important elements that makes concerted learning activities able and indicated for accomplishing the end of English linguistic communication proficiency. Concerted acquisition activities are designed as to diminish the affectional barrier while increasing the comprehensive input, the keeping degree is high, information coming from diverse beginnings with a high degree of hierarchal effectivity, monitored interaction /conversation and instructor ‘s illustrations utilizing formal/conversational linguistic communication easing academic linguistic communication acquisition, anterior cognition is activated and facilitates background edifice, multiple intelligences are approached through staging and differentiated direction.

The Great Trade Collapse: What Caused It and What Does It Mean

The great trade collapse: What caused it and what does it mean? Richard Baldwin 27 November 2009 World trade experienced a sudden, severe, and synchronised collapse in late 2008 – the sharpest in recorded history and deepest since WWII. This ebook – written for the world's trade ministers gathering for the WTO's Trade Ministerial in Geneva – presents the economics profession's received wisdom on the collapse. Two dozen chapters, written by leading economists from across the globe, summarise the latest research on the causes of the collapse as well as its consequences and the prospects for recovery.According to the emerging consensus, the collapse was caused by the sudden, severe and globally synchronised postponement of purchases, especially of durable consumer and investment goods (and their parts and components). The impact was amplified by â€Å"compositional† and â€Å"synchronicity† effects in which international supply chains played a central role. The â€Å"great trade collapse† occurred between the third quarter of 2008 and the second quarter of 2009. Signs are that it has ended and recovery has begun, but it was huge – the steepest fall of world trade in recorded history and the deepest fall since the Great Depression.The drop was sudden, severe, and synchronised. A few facts justify the label: The Great Trade Collapse. It was severe and sudden Global trade has dropped before – three times since WWII – but this is by far the largest. As Figure 1 shows, global trade fell for at least three quarters during three of the worldwide recessions that have occurred since 1965 – the oil-shock recession of 1974-75, the inflation-defeating recession of 1982-83, and the Tech-Wreck recession of 2001-02.Specifically: †¢The 1982 and 2001 drops were comparatively mild, with growth from the previous year’s quarter reaching -5% at the most. †¢The 1970s event was twice that size, with g rowth stumbling to -11%. †¢Today collapse is much worse; for two quarters in a row, world trade flows have been 15% below their previous year levels. The OECD has monthly data on its members’ real trade for the past 533 months; the 7 biggest month-on-month drops among the 533 all occurred since November 2008 (see the chapter by Sonia Araujo and Joaquim Oliveira).Figure 1 The great trade collapses in historical perspective, 1965 – 2009 Source: OECD Quarterly real trade data. The great trade collapse is not as large as that of the Great Depression, but it is much steeper. It took 24 months in the Great Depression for world trade to fall as far as it fell in the 9 months from November 2008 (Figure 2). The latest data in the figure (still somewhat preliminary) suggests a recovery is underway. Figure 2 The great trade collapses vs. the Great Depression Source: Eichengreen and O’Rourke (2009), based on CPB online data for latest.It was synchronised †¢All 104 nations on which the WTO reports data experienced a drop in both imports and exports during the second half of 2008 and the first half of 2009. †¢Figure 3 shows how imports and exports collapsed for the EU27 and 10 other nations that together account for three-quarters of world trade; each of these trade flows dropped by more than 20% from 2008Q2 to 2009Q2; many fell 30% or more. Figure 3 The great trade collapse, 2008 Q2 to 2009 Q2 Sources: WTO online database.Figure 4 shows that world trade in almost all product categories were positive in 2008Q2, almost all were negative in 2008Q4, and all where negative in 2009Q1. The categories most marked by international supply chains (Mechanical and electrical machinery, Precision instruments, and Vehicles) saw some of the biggest drops, and detailed empirics in the chapter by Bems, Johnson and Yi finds that supply chains were hit harder controlling for other factors. The chart, however, shows that the falls were by no means extraordin ary large in these sectors.Figure 4 All types of goods trade collapsed simultaneously Source: Comtrade database. Manufactures and commodities Trade collapsed across the board, but it is important to distinguish between commodities and manufactures. The collapse in minerals and oil trade started from a boom time and fell faster than total trade (Figure 5). The reason was prices. Food, materials and especially oil experienced a steep run up in price in early 2008; the boom ended in mid 2008 – well before the September 2008 Lehman’s debacle. The price of manufactures, by contrast, was rather steady in this period (Figure 6).Figure 5 The great trade collapse and values: Food, oil, and manufactures Source: ITC online database. Since food, fuels, and raw materials make up about a quarter of global trade, these price movements had a big impact on aggregate trade figures. Countries dependent on commodity exports, in particular oil exporters, were among those that experienced t he greatest drop in exports (see the chapters Africa by Peter Draper and Gilberto Biacuana, and by Leonce Ndikumana and Tonia Kandiero, and on India by Rajiv Kumar and Dony Alex).The drop in manufactures trade was also massive, but it involved mostly quantity reductions. Exporters specialising in durable goods manufactures saw a particularly sharp decline in their exports (see chapters on Japan by Ruyhei Wakasugi and by Kiyoyasu Tanaka). Mexico, which is both an oil exporter and a participant in the US’s manufacturing supply chain, experienced one of the world’s most severe trade slumps (see chapter by Ray Robertson). Figure 6 The great trade collapse and prices: Commodity vs. manufactures Source: CPB online database. CausesThe great trade collapse was triggered by – and helped spread – the global economic slump that has come to be called â€Å"The Great Recession. 1 As the left panel of Figure 7 shows, the OECD nations slipped into recession in this per iod, with the largest importing markets – the US, EU and Japan (the G3) – seeing their GDP growth plummet more or less in synch. The US and Europe saw negative GDP growth rates of 3 to 4%; Japan was hit far worse. Figure 7 The current recession, OECD nations and G3, 2007Q1 – 2009Q2 Note: G3 is US, EU and Japan. Source: OECD online data base.Why did trade fall so much more than GDP? Given the global recession, a drop in global trade is unsurprising. The question is: Why was it so big? The chapter by Caroline Freund shows that during the four large, postwar recessions (1975, 1982, 1991, and 2001) world trade dropped 4. 8 times more than GDP (also see Freund 2009). This time the drop was far, far larger. From a historical perspective (Figure 8), the drop is astonishing. The figure shows the trade-to-GDP ratio rising steeply in the late 1990s, before stagnating in the new century right up to the great trade collapse in 2008.The rise in the 1990s is explained by a nu mber of factors including trade liberalisation. A key driver, however, was the establishment of international supply chains (manufacturing was geographically unbundled with various slices of the value-added process being placed in nearby nations). This unbundling meant that the same value-added crossed borders several times. In a simple international supply chain, imported parts would be transformed into exported components which were in turn assembled into final goods and exported again, so the trade figures counted the final value added several times.As we shall see, the presences of these highly integrated and tightly synchronised production networks plays an important role in the nature of the great trade collapse (see chapters by Rudolfs Bems, Robert Johnson, and Kei-Mu Yi, and by Andrei Levchenko, Logan Lewis, and Linda Tesar). Figure 8 World trade to world GDP ratio, 1980Q1 to 2009Q2 Source: World imports from OECD online data base; World GDP based on IMF data. Emerging conse nsus on the causes Economists around the world have been working hard to understand the causes of this unusually large and abrupt shut down of international trade.The dozen chapters in Part II of this book summarise all the key research – most of it done by the authors themselves. They do not all agree on all points, but a consensus is emerging. When sales drop sharply – and the great trade collapse was a gigantic drop in international sales – economists look for demand shocks and/or supply shocks. The emerging consensus is that the great trade collapse was mostly a demand shock – although supply side factors played some role. The demand shock operated through two distinct but mutually reinforcing channels: †¢Commodity prices – which tumbled when the rice bubble burst in mid 2008 – continued to follow world demand in its downward spiral. The price movements and diminished demand sent the value and volume of commodities trade diving. â⠂¬ ¢The production and exports of manufacturing collapsed as the Lehman’s-induced shock-and-awe caused consumers and firms to wait and see; private demand for all manner of ‘postpone-able’ consumption crashed. This second point was greatly amplified by the very particular nature of the demand shock that hit the world’s economy in September 2008. Why so big? This consensus view, however, is incomplete.It raises the question: If the trade drop was demand driven, why was the trade drop so much larger than the GDP drop? The answer provided by the emerging consensus is that the nature of the demand shock interacted with â€Å"compositional† and â€Å"synchronicity† effects to greatly exaggerate the movement of the trade-to-GDP ratio. Compositional effect The compositional effect turns on the peculiar nature of the demand shock. The demand shock was very large, but also focused on a narrow range of domestic value-added activities – the produ ction of â€Å"postponeable† goods, consumer durables and investment goods.This demand drop immediately, reducing demand for all related intermediate inputs (parts and components, chemicals, steel, etc). The compositional-effect argument is founded on the fact that postponeables make up a narrow slice of world GDP, but a very large slice of the world trade (Figure 9). In a nutshell, the common cause of the GDP and trade collapse – a sudden drop in the demand for postponeables – operated with full force on trade but diminished force on GDP due to the compositional difference.The large demand shock applied to the near-totality of trade while only applying to a thin portion of GDP. Here is a simple example. 2 Suppose exports consisted of 90% â€Å"postponeable† (consumer and investment electronics, transport equipment, machinery and their parts and components). GDP, however, consists most of non-tradeables (services, etc). Taking postponeables’ share in US GDP to be 20%, the pre-crisis situation is: When the sales of postponeables slumps by, say, half, the numerator falls much more than the denominator.Assuming that †other† continues growth in trade and GDP by 2%, the post-crisis trade to GDP ratio is Exports have fallen 44. 8% in this example, while GDP has fallen only 8. 4%. In short, the different composition of trade and GDP, taken together with the specific nature of the demand shock, has resulted in trade falling more than 5 times as fast as GDP. See the chapter by Andrei Levchenko, Logan Lewis, and Linda Tesar for a careful investigation of this logic using detailed US production and trade data; they find that the compositional effect accounts for most of the US trade drop.The chapter by Joseph Francois and Julia Woerz uses US and Chinese data to argue that the compositional effect is key to understanding the trade collapse. 3 Figure 9 Composition of world goods trade Source: WTO online database for 2007. Sync hronicity effect The synchronicity effect helps explain why the great trade collapse was so great in an even more direct manner; almost every nation’s imports and exports fell at the same time. There was none of the averaging out that occurred in the three other postwar trade drops. But why was it so synchronised?There are two leading explanations for the remarkable synchronicity. The first concerns international supply chains, the second concerns the ultimate cause of the Great Recession. The profound internationalisation of the supply chain that has occurred since the 1980s – specifically, the just-in-time nature of these vertically integrated production networks – served to coordinate, i. e. rapidly transmit, demand shocks. Even a decade ago, a drop in consumer sales in the US or Europe took months to be transmitted back to the factories and even longer to reach the suppliers of those factories.Today, Factory Asia is online. Hesitation by US and European cons umers is transmitted almost instantly to the entire supply chain, which reacts almost instantly by producing and buying less; trade drops in synch, both imports and exports. For example, during the 2001 trade collapse, monthly data for 52 nations shows that 39% of the month-nation pairs had negative growth for both imports and exports. In the 2008 crisis the figure is 83%. For details on this point, see Di Giovanni, Julian and Andrei Levchenko (2009), Yi (2009), and the chapters by Rudolfs Bems, Robert Johnson, and Kei-Mu Yi, and by Kiyoyasu Tanaka.The second explanation requires a bit of background and a bit of conjecture (macroeconomists have not arrived at a consensus on the causes of the Great Recession). To understand the global shock to the demand for traded goods, we need a thumbnail sketch of the global crisis. How the subprime crisis became the global crisis The â€Å"Subprime Crisis† broke out in August 2007. For 13 months, the world viewed this as a financial crisi s that was mainly restricted to the G7 nations who had mismanaged their monetary and regulatory policy – especially the US and the UK.Figure 3 shows that world trade continued growing apace in 2007 and early 2008. The crisis metastasised from the â€Å"Subprime Crisis† to the global crisis in September 2008. The defining moment came when the US Treasury allowed the investment bank Lehman Brothers to go bankrupt. This shocked the global financial community since they had assumed no major financial institution would be allowed to go under. Many of the remaining financial institutions were essentially bankrupt in an accounting sense, so no one knew who might be next. Bankers stopped lending to each other and credit markets froze.The Lehman bankruptcy, however, was just one of a half dozen â€Å"impossible events† that occurred at this time. Here is a short list of others:4 †¢All big investment banks disappeared. †¢The US Fed lent $85 billion to an insuran ce company (AIG), borrowing money from the US Treasury to cover the loan. †¢A US money market fund lost so much that it could not repay its depositors capital. †¢US Treasury Secretary Paulson asked the US Congress for three-quarters of a trillion dollars based on a 3-page proposal; he had difficulties in answering direct questions about how the money would fix the problem. The hereto laissez-faire US Securities and Exchange Commission banned short selling of bank stocks to slow the drop in financial institutions stock prices. It didn’t work. †¢Daniel Gros and Stephano Micossi (2009) pointed out that European banks were too big to fail and too big to save (their assets were often multiples of the their home nations’ GDPs); †¢Congress said â€Å"no† to Paulson’s ill-explained plan, promising its own version. As people around the world watched this unsteady and ill-explained behaviour of the US government, a massive feeling of insecurity formed.Extensive research in behavioural economics shows that people tend to act in extremely risk averse ways when gripped by fears of the unknown (as opposed to when they are faced with risk, as in a game of cards, where all outcomes can be enumerated and assigned a probability). Fall 2008 was a time when people really had no idea what might happen. This is Ricardo Caballero’s hypothesis of â€Å"Knightian Uncertainty† (i. e. the fear of the unknown) which has been endorsed by the IMF’s chief economist Olivier Blanchard. Consumers, firms, and investors around the world decided to â€Å"wait and see† – to hold off on postponeable purchases and investments until they could determine how bad things would get. The delaying of purchases and investments, the redressing of balance sheets and the switching of wealth to the safest assets caused what Caballero has called â€Å"sudden financial arrest† (a conscious reference to the usually fatal medi cal condition â€Å"sudden cardiac arrest†). The â€Å"fear factor† spread across the globe at internet speed. Consumers, firms and investors all feared that they’d find out what capitalism without the capital would be like.They independently, but simultaneously decided to shelf plans for buying durable consumer and investment goods and indeed anything that could be postponed, including expensive holidays and leisure travel. In previous episodes of declining world trade, there was no Lehman-like event to synchronise the wait-and-see stance on a global scale. The key points as concerns the trade and GDP collapse: †¢As the fear factor was propagating via the electronic press; the transmission was global and instantaneous. †¢The demand shock to GDP and the demand shock to trade occurred simultaneously. â€Å"Postponeable† sector production and trade were hit first and hardest. There are a number of indications that this is the right story. First, g lobal trade in services did not, in general, collapse (see the chapter by Aditya Mattoo and Ingo Borchert). Interestingly, one of the few categories of services trade that did collapse was tourism – the ultimate postponeable. Second, macroeconomists’ investigations into the transmission mechanisms operating in this crisis show that none of the usual transmission vectors – trade in goods, international capital flows, and financial crisis contagion – were esponsible for the synchronisation of the global income drop (Rose and Spiegel 2009). Supply-side effects The Lehman-link â€Å"sudden financial arrest† froze global credit markets and spilled over on the specialized financial instruments that help grease the gears of international trade – letters of credit and the like. From the earliest days of the great trade collapse, analysts suspected that a lack of trade-credit financing was a contributing factor (Auboin 2009). As the chapter by Jesse Mora and William Powers argues, such supply-side shocks have been important in the past.Careful research on the 1997 Asian crisis (Amiti and Weinstein 2009) and historical bank crises (see the chapter by Leonardo Iacovone and Veronika Zavacka) provide convincing evidence that credit conditions can affect trade flows. The Mora and Powers chapter, however, finds that declines in global trade finance have not had a major impact on trade flows. While global credit markets in general did freeze up, trade finance declined only moderately in most cases. If anything, US cross-border bank financing bounced back earlier than bank financing from other sources.In short, trade financing had at most a moderate role in reducing global trade. Internationalised supply chains are a second potential source of supply shocks. One could imagine that a big drop in demand combined with deteriorating credit conditions might produce widespread bankruptcies among trading firms. Since the supply chain is a cha in, bankruptcy of even a few links could suppress trade along the whole chain. The chapters by Peter Schott (on US data), by Lionel Fontagne and Guillaume Gaulier (on French data), and by Ruyhei Wakasugi (on Japanese data) present evidence that such disruptions did not occur this time.They do this by looking at very disaggregated data (firm-level data in the Fontagne-Gaulier chapter) and distinguishing between the so-called â€Å"intensive† and â€Å"extensive† margins of trade. These margins decompose changes in trade flows into changes in sales across existing trade relations (intensive) and changes in the number of such relations (extensive). If the supply-chain-disruption story were an important part of the great trade collapse, these authors should have found that the extensive margin was important.The authors, however, find that the great trade collapse has been primarily driven by the intensive margin – by changes in pre-existing trade relationships. Trad e fell because firms sold less of products that they were already selling; there was very little destruction of trade relationships as would be the case if the extensive margin had been found to be important. This findings may be due to the notion of †hysteresis in trade† (Baldwin 1988), namely, that large and sunk market-entry costs imply that firms are reluctant to exit markets in the face of temporary shocks.Instead of exiting, they merely scale back their operations, waiting for better times. Protectionism is the final supply shock commonly broached as a cause of the great trade collapse. The chapter by Simon Evenett documents the rise in crisis-linked protectionist measures. While many measures have been put in place – on average, one G20 government has broken its no-protection pledge every other day since November 2008 – they do not yet cover a substantial fraction of world trade. Protection, in short, has not been a major cause of the trade collapse so far.Prospects The suddenness of the 2008 trade drop holds out the hope of an equally sudden recovery. If the fear-factor-demand-drop was the driver of the great trade collapse, a confidence-factor-demand-revival could equally drive a rapid restoration of trade to robust growth. If it was all a demand problem, after all, little long-lasting damage will have been done. See the chapter by Ruyhei Wakasugi on this. There are clear signs that trade is recovering, and it is absolutely clear that the drop has halted. Will the trade revival continue?No one can know the future path of global economic recovery – and this is the key to the trade recovery. It is useful nonetheless to think of the global economic crisis as consisting of two very different crises: a banking-and-balance-sheet crisis in the over-indebted advanced nations (especially the US and UK), on one hand, and an expectations-crisis in most of the rest of the world on the other hand. In the US, UK and some other G7 na tions, the damage done by the bursting subprime bubble is still being felt.Their financial systems are still under severe strain. Bank lending is sluggish and corporate-debt issuances are problematic. Extraordinary direct interventions by central banks in the capital markets are underpinning the economic recovery. For these nations, the crisis – specifically the Subprime Crisis – has caused lasting damage. Banks, firms and individuals who over-leveraged during what they thought was the †great moderation† are now holding back on consumption and investment in an attempt to redress their balance sheets (Bean 2009).This could play itself out like the lost decade Japan experienced in the 1990s (Leijonhufvud 2009, Kobayashi 2008); also see the chapter by Michael Ferrantino and Aimee Larsen. For most nations in the world, however, this is not a financial crisis – it is a trade crisis. Many have reacted by instituting fiscal stimuli of historic proportions, but their banks and consumers are in relatively good shape, having avoided the overleveraging in the post tech-wreck period (2001-2007) that afflicted many of the G7 economies.The critical question is whether the damage to the G7’s financial systems will prevent a rapid recovery of demand and a restoration of confidence that will re-start the investment engine. In absence of a crystal ball, the chapter by Baldwin and Taglioni undertakes simple simulations that assume trade this time recovers at the pace it did in the past three global trade contractions (1974, 1982 and 2001). In those episodes, trade recovered to its pre-crisis path 2 to 4 quarters after the nadir.Assuming that 2009Q2 was the bottom of the great trade collapse – again an assumption that would require a crystal ball to confirm – this means trade would be back on track by mid 2010. Forecasts are never better than the assumptions on which they are built, so such calculations must be viewed as what- if scenarios rather than serious forecasts. Implications What does the great trade collapse mean for the world economy? The authors of this Ebook present a remarkable consensus on this.Three points are repeatedly stressed: †¢Global trade imbalances are a problem that needs to be tackled. One group of authors (see the chapters by Fred Bergsten, by Anne Krueger, and by Jeff Frieden) sees them as one the root causes of the Subprime Crisis. They worry that allowing them to continue is setting up the world for another global economic crisis. Fred Bergsten in particular argues that the US must get its federal budget deficit in order to avoid laying the carpet for the next crisis.Another group points to the combination of Asian trade surpluses and persistent high unemployment in the US and Europe as a source of protectionist pressures (see the chapters by Caroline Freund, by Simon Evenett, and by Richard Baldwin and Daria Taglioni). The chapter by O’Rourke notes that avoiding a protectionist backlash will require that the slump ends soon, and that severe exchange rate misalignments at a time of rising unemployment are avoided. †¢Governments should guard against compliancy in their vigil against protectionism.Most authors mention the point that while new protectionism to date has had a modest trade effect, things need not stay that way. The chapter by Simon Evenett is particularly clear on this point. There is much work to be done before economists fully understand the great trade collapse, but the chapters in this Ebook constitute a first draft of the consensus that will undoubtedly emerge from the pages of scientific journals in two or three years’ time. Footnotes 1 See Di Giovanni and Levchenko (2009) for evidence on how the shock was transmitted via international production networks. This is drawn from Baldwin and Taglioni (2009). 3 Jon Eaton, Sam Kortum, Brent Neiman and John Romalis make similar arguments with data from many nations in an unpublished manuscript dated October 2009. 4 See the excellent timeline of the crisis by the New York Fed. 5 Caballero (2009a, b) and Blanchard (2009). References Auboin, Marc (2009). â€Å"The challenges of trade financing†, VoxEU. org, 28 January 2009. Baldwin, Richard (1988). â€Å"Hysteresis in Import Prices: The Beachhead Effect†, American Economic Review, 78, 4, pp 773-785, 1988.Baldwin, Richard and Daria Taglioni (2009). â€Å"The illusion of improving global imbalances†, VoxEU. org, 14 November 2009. Bean, Charles (2009). â€Å"The Great Moderation, the Great Panic and the Great Contraction†, Schumpeter Lecture, European Economic Association, Barcelona, 25 August 2009. Blanchard, Olivier (2009). â€Å"(Nearly) nothing to fear but fear itself†, Economics Focus column, The Economist print edition, 29 January 2009. Caballero, Ricardo (2009a). â€Å"A global perspective on the great financial insurance run: Causes, consequences, and solutions (Part 2)†, VoxEU. rg, 23 January 2009. Caballero, Ricardo (2009b). â€Å"Sudden financial arrest†, VoxEU. org, 17 November 2009. Di Giovanni, Julian and Andrei Levchenko (2009). †International trade, vertical production linkages, and the transmission of shocks†, VoxEU. org, 11 November 2009.Freund, Caroline (2009a). â€Å"The Trade Response to Global Crises: Historical Evidence†, World Bank working paper. Gros, Daniel and Stefano Micossi (2009). â€Å"The beginning of the end game†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , VoxEU. org, 20 September 2008. Kobayashi, Keiichiro (2008). Financial crisis management: Lessons from Japan’s failure†, VoxEU. org, 27 October 2008. Leijonhufvud, Axel (2009). â€Å"No ordinary recession†, VoxEU. org, 13 February 2009. Rose, Andrew and Mark Spiegel (2009). â€Å"Searching for international contagion in the 2008 financial crisis†, VoxEU. org, 3 October 2009. Yi, Kei-Mu (2009), â€Å"The collapse of global trade: Th e role of vertical specialisation†, in Baldwin and Evenett (eds), The collapse of global trade, murky protectionism, and the crisis: Recommendations for the G20, a VoxEU publication.

Depressive Disorders in Children and Adolescents Research Paper

Depressive Disorders in Children and Adolescents - Research Paper Example Son & Kirchner (2000) have conducted their research on the same topic and have pointed out the causes and consequences of depression upon children, according to which the family background as well as domestic environment certainly invite sadness among the young innocent individuals at large. The authors are of the view that depression is affecting 2 percent of pre-pubertal children and 5 to 8 percent of adolescents in the United States. While discussing the main reasons for increase in the depression level among the individuals belonging to early years, the authors also blame poor performance at school as one of the most prominent causes behind such gloomy mood of children. The authors have also mentioned the symptoms of depressive attitude, which include lack of mixing in family, disinterest in studies, recreational activities, including both indoor and outdoor, and reluctance to join the peers in sports and games. Greenberg (2009) has also conducted his study while focusing upon th e symptoms of depressive attitude in children and adolescence. The researcher submits to state that it was misconception that only the adults may experience depression; however the same disorder is frequently observed by the young ones.

Summery of Man and organization three problems in human relations in Essay

Summery of Man and organization three problems in human relations in organization and environment - Essay Example These problems are not clear cut as they tend to be mutually dependent. Culture â€Å"Culture is defined as ideas, customs, skills, arts etc. of a people or a group that are transferred or communicated or passed along as in or at succeeding generations† as defined by the American heritage dictionary. Culture can be stratified into organizational and indigenous culture. According to Everett Hagen (Whyte 1959 pg. 8)â€Å"in Latin America we find a much greater emphasis upon line of authority and a lesser development of staff organizations than we see in comparable companies in the united states. Its union management relations and grievance procedure as we know it in the US is little in evidence in Latin American plants†. This shows that the Latin American society is more stratified with greater emphasis upon family and community which makes it difficult for people in different status level to express themselves freely and frankly in discussions and arguments. In this kind of culture people tend to congregate into social groups and networks in which they interact and seek acceptance and also give approval to fellow workers, this is where members form their goals, attitude and ideals. They have virtually elected leaders who they always tell to air their grievances. George Elton Mayo of the Hawthorne experiment (Accel team 2010) says that â€Å"change from an established society in the home to an adaptive society in the work plant resulting from the use on new techniques tends to continually disrupt the social organization of a work plant and industry generally†. This shows that indigenous or national culture influences workers even in the work place. The institute of work psychology university of Sheffield 1998 describes organizational culture as â€Å"the aggregate of an employee’s perception of an organization e.g. quality of communication, level of supervision and support for innovation†. When an employee joins a new organizati on, s/he is matriculated into the culture and practices of the organization. If there is a lot of bureaucracy in the operations of a firm or stratified culture, members are not able to communicate their problems freely especially to higher authority. For centralized organization especially in supervisory and decision making, lower management tends not feel very accountable or responsible because they only carry out orders as received from above and thus they are not able to influence performance as they should in their individual field. Herzberg’s motivation theory (Accel-team 2010) says that â€Å"the motivation for maximum productivity of an employee is recognition, achievement, growth and advancement and if these lack even if the hygiene factors are present the individual finally loses interest and is not maximally productive.† Therefore if an organization lacks to the right practices to motivate their workers they do not achieve maximum productivity. Organizational structure The business dictionary.com defines it as â€Å"a framework typically hierarchical within which an organization arranges its lines of authority and communications and allocate rights and duties.it determines the manner and extent to which roles, power and responsibilities are delegated, controlled and coordinated†. Every organization has both formal and informal structures. Formal structures are a

Enterprise Architecture Final Exam Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Enterprise Architecture Final Exam - Assignment Example For the said paradigm of homogeneity to take place in the running of the Enterprise Architecture, it is important to have key deliverables in place. These deliverables are tangible tasks that must be performed to ensure the successful implementation of the company’s operating model (Schekkerman, 2004). There could indeed be as many of these deliverables as possible but classifying them is also possible. Classifications could bring about key deliverables such as road maps, made up of technology, process and people road maps; application portfolio management; IT risk management; standards and polices; and scenario planning may all be mentioned. Enterprise architecture framework is generally a tangible manifestation of the mindset of the enterprise architect towards the implementation of the enterprise architecture. To this end, an enterprise architecture framework may be said to be system for the provision of principles and practices that come together to constitute the architec ture description for the organization (Paras, 2005). Because of the differences in organizational structures, organizational demand for enterprise architecture and of course differences with preferences of enterprise architects, there are major types of enterprise architecture frameworks that may be used. ... There is also solution architecting mechanism (SAM), which is commonly used by architects who want to achieve set of integral modules. But for whichever form or example of enterprise architecture framework that is used, an outstanding identity is that these frameworks are made up of matrices and diagrams that manifest the domains, layers and models that the architect uses in initiating the enterprise architecture. Principles in general are rules and guidelines that inform the parameters based on which the achievement of organizational missions and goals is approached. In this regard, enterprise principles can be said to be the standardization of decision-making options within the organization for the common good of achieving governance stratification. On the other hand, architecture principles could be said to be rules and regulations that gives a level of uniformity in the across the enterprise and decisions on how enterprise architecture should be developed and maintained (Ross, We ill and Robertson, 2006). It is based on these premises that Weill, Subramani and Broadbent (2002) have identified enterprise architecture principle as a coordinated paradigm used for determining the focus of any given enterprise will utilize and deploy its scope of IT resources and properties (McGovern, Stevens and Sharan, 2004). There exist different examples of enterprise architecture, depending on what an organization wants to achieve. In the simplest forms however most organizations make use of examples of enterprise architecture principles including business principles, data principles, and application principles. Business principles cater for such areas of the enterprise architecture such as primacy of principles, information management as

MLT1 Task 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

MLT1 Task 5 - Essay Example Streptococci lacti) and Lactobacilli (e.g. Lactobacillus casei, L. pentosus), which produce lactic acid as the end product of fermentation (Buchanan & Cibbons, 1974). Other glucose fermenting bacteria that produce these acids are Proteus, Shigella, Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Microbacterium and Leuconostoc (Buchanan & Cibbons, 1974). When using phenol red indicator in the broth media, two bacterias that ferment glucose were the E. coli and Shigella sonnei, they produced measurable acid by-product because the broth media changed from red to yellow. Therefore, organisms like Escherichia coli, ferments glucose through fermentation thereby liberating large amount of three types of acids like succinic, lactic, and acetic, which changes the media from yellow to red (McDevitt, 2009). The Voges – Proskauer test is appropriate because of the detection capability of acetoin, which is produced by the bacteria that use it as metabolic intermediate by following the butane diol pathway (Buchanan & Cibbons, 1974). This test is used when differentiating Escherichia coli from other Enterobacter  species like Enterobacter  aerogenes because E. coli is positive in Methyl red yet negative Voges-Proskauer whiles the Enterobacter  aerogenes is negative in Methyl red test and positive in Voges-Proskauer (McDevitt, 2009). Availability of main source of food determines the enzymes and the pathway of glucose metabolism because different nutrients require specific enzymes hence determining the pathway (Dannessa, 2014). However, alternative pathways are used when organism require a specific amount of ATP, since different pathway produce a certain amount of ATP after oxidation of glucose (Dannessa,

The importance of multicultural managemnt in hotel industry in sudan Essay

The importance of multicultural managemnt in hotel industry in sudan to sustain a competitive advantage - Essay Example Familiarity with both is essential because each has a bearing on an employee's every day behavior† (Tabije 2006, para. 1). In the study the questionnaires were two kinds they were the manager’s questionnaire and the employee’s questionnaire. The questionnaire is the method of data collection hired by the individual's researchers, and the organizations in getting the adequate information. A questionnaire consists of the series of questions, given to the chosen respondents for getting the data. In questionnaire method, we use two categories of questions such as Open ended and closed questions. These two categories of the questions are extremely diverse in nature and usage. Open ended questions are expected to obtain descriptive answers. This type of question starts with what, describe, why and how. Closed questions can be replied with a single or small phrase. Also, this type of questions can have a limited application. The samples obtained from the questionnaire we re collected and the study consists of the various sampling techniques employed for the research work. The sample in this particular portion of the survey is about population. The samples here were classified on the basis of the socio-economic characteristics of the employees in the hotel, gender, age groups, religion, language spoken, qualification, department which they belong to and the experience in the field. At times the employees filled the questionnaires partly and at times considered them an intrusion on the privacy of an individual and unwarranted for the research. Demographic Data: A number of questions were filled in the last section of the review about traits demographic individuality of the respondents, and the circumstances they lived. Behavior demographics were collected on sex, location categorization. Other information in this section was concerning industry sector of the business they work for and the volume of the company. Demographic data was unruffled on indivi dual respondents due of concern about confidentiality. Respondents by Socio-Economic Characters: As the questionnaires were two kinds one to be filled up by the mangers and the others to be filled up by the employees, the questionnaires of the mangers consisted of descriptive questions, and that of the employees consisted of the questions based on the culture,language,experience,religion,qualifications etc. The mangers were to answer based on the various facts like the affect of the culture on the work attitudes, the impact of the diversification in the workplace of the organization, usefulness of the application of the multicultural theories in suggesting the synergy of the organization and on the cultural needs and the intergration of the same. Managers require to be conscious of the two systems and their possessions. At the boundaries a strong, controlling official work system can strangle inventiveness and inspiration and a strong, insubordinate can effect in chaos and weaken an d demolish the Reliability and practical use of the administrator work system. The response for management is to struggle for an optimal point on the band at which to operate. The employee’s questionnaire was based on the job satisfaction and the employees’ perception on the hotel management culture which include the perceptions on the culture of the

Journal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 8

Journal - Assignment Example e while women is receptive.In every culture, gender role is influenced by various sources including parental expectation, modeling by peers, and media images of male and female. For instance, Scandinavian culture appears to have a more egalitarian gender role such as norms of behavior and personal traits at home and work are not defined solely on gender.In contrat, Arabs have strict implication of gender role which expect women to cover head and walk behind husband.Across many cultures males are expected to be strong,independent, self – reliant, emotionally detached and women are taught to be nurturing, dependent, gentle and emotional.Gender role is the public expression ofone’s gender identity.In many cultures men learn to be aggressive and women learn to be passive.A family from the birth of a child imposes gender role on them and bring them up as male or female.Basically the attitude and behavior of male and female is molded according to the cultural environment he or sheis grown up

Sociology Chaper One Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Sociology Chaper One - Essay Example Employees at Walmart stores are in the beginning stages of forming a union as well, working toward getting more equitable pay and benefits. 2. With all research methods listed here except participant observation, there is a certain degree of separation between the researcher and the subject. This varies, of course, by the type of research being conducted. This is both a strength and a weakness. While this separation enables the researcher to reach conclusions based upon the facts as they are uncovered by the research method, none of these methods enable the kind of comprehensive understanding of a group of people that can be reached through participant observation, which is why participant observation is used most often in sociology. At the same time, participant observation poses the risk of the researcher becoming too intimately involved with the group. 3. Obesity in America is getting worse because of sociological issues. Entire groups of people are going to work two and three jobs just to make ends meet or sometimes to be able to afford the kinds of extras they perceive as necessary. Their children, sitting along watching TV commercials that equate happiness and fun with eating junk food, continue to snack and gain weight while the adults, constantly eating fast food on the run between one job and another, also gain weight after having also made similar associations between food and fun, joy, and companionship. 4. The symbolic interactionism theory is interesting because it focuses on the individual levels that contribute to the greater social system. Without symbols, we would be unable to understand each other. Thinking about those times when I’ve had to communicate with someone who does not speak English, it is the symbols we use that facilitate the conversation. Even when the same language is spoken, though, it is the use of symbols that help us determine how we feel about others and how

5-color theorem Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

5-color theorem - Essay Example There are three of them, four-color, five-color and six-color theorem. The five color theorem was proved in 1890 showing that five colors suffice to color a map. (Jensen and Toft 61) It all began with Francis Guthrie. He was a mathematician from British, who in 1952 discovered that he could color the states in the map of Great Britain by means of four colors without coloring of the neighboring countries with the same color. The problem hence arose if it was feasible to color any given map using four colors and it remained an area of interest for a while. The problem was; however, deciphered in 1879 when A. Kempe claimed to have found an explanation to the four color problem and went ahead to publish his solution and proof. In 1890; however, P. Heawood discovered an error in Kempers proof, which led to the demotion of the four color theorem as a credible theory. Heawood was unable to show that there was an error, which could have been colored with not less than five colors, but ultimately proved that Kempe was wrong in his argument. This led to a solution in the color problem with the five color theorem sufficing (Jensen and Toft 61). In order to proof the five color theorem mathematically, one relates a planar graph, G to a certain map. A vertex is placed on every area in the map. Two vertices are then connected with an edge where analogous areas share a boundary in common. This problem is then translated into a graph coloring problem. One is now required to color the graph vertices so that no border has its endpoints with a similar color. This proof relies heavily on the Euler characteristic to illustrate that there, it is mandatory to have a vertex V that is shared by at most five borders. It also relies on the fact that G is a planar. This is to denote that G may be embedded in a plane without necessarily intersecting the borders. Now take out

Business Communication Essay Example for Free

Business Communication Essay A good rate of ideas are exchanged between departments †¢ It encourages good communication between different departments †¢ Having group discussions allows a wide range of ideas from different experts to be considered †¢ The more ideas the more chance they will hit upon a great one The main disadvantages of horizontal communication are as follows: †¢ Due to the fact both departments may be of equal powers decisions are hard to come to †¢ Nobody has the overall say and final decision It can cause in-house fighting if differing opinions boil over †¢ One department may always have to check with another department before pushing anything through Advantages/Importance of upward communication: 1. Feedback: The major advantages of upward communication are, it provides feedback from the employees. As a result the communication loop (cycle) completes and management can realize the reactions of the employees. 2. Constructive idea: Upward communication allows the employees to inform their views regarding the implementation of company policies. 3. Helps decision making: Through upward communication top management can know the views of flower level employees which help them to make more realistic decision. 4. Establishment of good relation: Upward communication brings executives and employees close to each other and accordingly mutual relationship developed. 5. Mutual trust: For the success of any sort of communication trust is an essential element. As relationship developed through upward communication mutual trust also created. 6. Enhance coordination: Opportunity to express own views and participation in the decision making enhance the level of coordination. 7. Motivation: The task of motivation needs two way communications between the concerned parties. Upward communication enables the executives to extend appropriate motivational measures. Disadvantages/Limitations of upward communication: 1. Reluctance: In some cases employees are reluctant to provide information through upward channel. 2. Non-cooperative attitude: Non-cooperative attitude to the executives damage the willingness of the employees to initiate upward communication. 3. Chance of distortion: Downward communication can be distorted unconsciously but in case of upward communication information can be distorted deliberately. . Trend to by-pass: Another side effect of upward communication is tendency of by passing the immediate boss, can be created among the employees. 5. Delay: Sometimes lower level employees hesitate to inform a problem upward because doing so means acceptance of failure. Thus delays may take place to decide whether to inform the top management or try further to solve the problem. advantages 1. increases efficiency 2. its appropriate for giving instructions 3. ensures that everyone is working towards goals and objectives disadvantages 1. info can be distorted as it goes down 2. nformation overload 3. lack of openness between managers and employees a. Contents of diagonal communication: This type of communication is common in tactical situations which require the quick transfer of information or advice; in hostage situations or cases of civil unrest, it is probably imperative. Diagonal communication is usually verbal and thus is conducted by telephone or radio. b. Advantages of diagonal communication: Diagonal communication has the following advantages: (1) It is a most direct method of communication. (2) It is a most selective method of communication. 3) It is one of the fastest methods of communication. (4) In critical situations, it would seem to be the most essential and logical type of communication. c. Disadvantages of diagonal communication: The major disadvantages of diagonal communication include the following: (1) It can destroy lines of authority and formal chains of command. (2) It can leave immediate superiors uninformed of what their subordinates are doing. (3) It can lead to conflicting orders and hence to further confusion. (4) It is usually verbal, and thus is untraceable if things go wrong.

Adolescent Sexual Development

Adolescent Sexual Development Kari Svendsen Abstract: This paper touches on the importance of providing public awareness and education to our educators, parents, and students so that we reduce the number of girls that have onset puberty. It also provides information on how we can teach parents to be supportive during adolescents, which can be a difficult and confusing time for students, which is more important than ever. With the improvement of sexual education programs taught in our school systems, parents and teachers can adequately prepare students for the negative effects of sexual activity before it is too late. The numbers of adolescents engaging in sexual activity, STIs and teen pregnancies can be reduced. Adolescent Sexual Development Sexual maturation and growth spurts both accompany puberty and can be a difficult and confusing time for adolescents, especially with children hitting puberty at an earlier age than ever. It is essential that adolescents have the support of their teachers, parents, and physicians at this transitional time in their lives. Even though sexual education is taught in our school systems, these students are inadequately prepared and a staggering number of students are exposed to sexually transmitted infections and teen pregnancy; not to mention the emotional distress that adolescents will endure. It takes years for the average adolescents’ body to go through the process of sexual maturation. The onset of puberty is not triggered by any particular event, but rather a multitude of things such as stress, genetics, nutrition and diet as well as the amount of body fat to name a few (Gentry, p. 1, 2002). There is also a growth spurt that is brought on by puberty when the skeletal system grows rapidly. This can occur in girls starting at age 10 and boy at age 10.5; this growth spurt usually ends around 19 for girls and 20 for boys (Headlee, p. 7, 2010). Hands legs and feet are first and then the growth spurt will hit the torso; in girls, the sexual hormone will attribute to broader hips. These growths spurts can be an awkward time for adolescent children as their bodies are evening out. Some researchers say there is no external cause for early onset puberty, while others say different. Some researchers have linked obesity as a contributing factor (Parent, p. 670, 2003). The inactivity and poor diet of our youth is putting them at risk for a higher percentage of body fat which leads to premature puberty. Environmental chemical have also been linked to an onset of puberty. Chemicals are added to almost all commercial cleaning products to include: shampoo, teething toys, bottles. Chemicals can also be in the food that adolescents eat. Another onset of puberty can be linked to the absence of a girl’s father; researchers have shown that the longer the girls has been away from her father the earlier she will start her first menstrual cycle (Parent, p. 671, 2003). Research findings show that girls who are ill-prepared for the physical and emotional changes brought on by puberty will have the most difficult time (Gentry, p. 1, 2002). This means that providing adolescents a stable and encouraging environment with family, teachers, and physicians is crucial. Beth Ross, Director of student services at Rockdale County School, expresses her concern of parent and teacher involvement after uncovering a syphilis outbreak in her school system. Rockdale County is a small, close-knit community, made up of wealthy families in a desirable part of Atlanta. Here, at least 19 females and 4 males were part of the syphilis outbreak (Ross, 1999). Through interviews and investigations it was learned that at the center of the outbreak were a group of young girls that were no older than 16 (Ross, 1999). The sexual activity would sometimes be accompanied with the use of drugs and alcohol, and the sexual interactions were with slightly older boys. These interactions would take place at one of the girl’s home when her parents were not in the house. These girls not only had sex with each other but also with all of the other boys in an open and communal environment. Beth Ross has been a counselor for over 16 years and says that the needs of children into today’s world are the same as 16 years ago when she started; they have not changed (Ross, 1999). These children have the same needs, the only thing that has changed is that both sets of parents are now working and have become too â€Å"busy† (Ross, 1999). She also points out that the young girls, who are at such shockingly young ages, that are sexually active and it stems from being asked as well as needing to feel loved and wanted. This comes from something lacking in the childhood for them to desire to become sexually active at such a young age. She mentions that these students are lacking limits and structure in their lives, lack of parents being there for them to say this is how far you go and what is acceptable. Sixteen years ago parents were more adamant about what children were and were not allowed to do so there was no question in their mind what their limits were. Some par ents say that they did not like the way they were raised and that they would never treat their child the way they were treated, but this is when the structure they hated as a child goes out of the window and where rebellion begins. Rules and structure are crucial to children. After the follow-up interview was conducted at Rockdale County, some 6-12 months later, a few of the girls were still sexually active and also still used drugs. There were just a few of the girls that said they were no longer sexually active due to the stricter rules and supervision enforced by their parents. The girls interviewed all seemed to agree that there was still a lack of communication with their parents and that no real action had been taken since the outbreak occurred. By the end of the follow-up interviews and investigation 8 of the over 20 girls were pregnant (Ross, 1999). An extensive study has been conducted by Selma N. Caal, in 2008, on high-risk sexual behavior. Caal reported that youth with highly cohesive families and low peer norms reported low risk sexual behavior; however, youth with highly cohesive families and high peer norms reported high risk sex (Caal, 2008). Youth coming from low cohesive families did not base their sexuality on their peers. If youth perceived that the peers were okay with and engaging in sexual behavior then they were more likely to be sexually active themselves (Caal, 2008). During adolescence teens try to separate from their parents and become closer to their peers, so parental communication regarding sexual behavior is crucial to the youth’s sexual activity. The more time that parents spend away from their children, the more room for risky behavior. In a time when dual parents are working full-time jobs is it harder than ever to stay in communication and enforce rules. Age also plays a factor with risky sexual behavior; as older youth were more likely for this behavior, possibly because of their sexual maturity level (Caal, 2008). Also media plays a very strong role in adolescent sexual behavior as they are exposed to it constantly, and can send messages that high-risk sexual behavior is welcomed and accepted. The age of youth engaging in sexual activity drops each year and is a great concern which proves that our youth should be better educated and monitored not only at home but also in the school system. The numbers of high-risk sexual behavior adolescents could be significantly reduced by educating our youth and holding them more accountable. Advocate for Youth reports the effectiveness of sexual education in schools has contributed to lower numbers in teen pregnancy, lower numbers of youth engaging in unprotected sex, and also delayed initiation of sexual behavior altogether (McKeon, 2006). Sexual education seems to be failing as a whole, as there are 1 million people a day who acquire a sexually transmitted infection (STI) (WHO, 2013). We are failing our youth and our world at a rate of 30 million people a month, 360 million people a year (WHO, 2013). Our adolescents account for nearly half of these numbers. STI’s are causing major infertility problems and in some cases even death. They are also costing billions of dollars annually. Unprotected sex and teen birth is still a problem; however, we are moving in the right direction as a 9 percent drop was recorded from 2009-2010 (Hamilton Ventura, 2012). This puts us at a record low rate of 34.3 births per 1000 girls between the ages of 15-19 (Hamilton Ventura, 2012). Although numbers are lowering, this is a still a major concern for both mother and child as they are rarely able to financially support themselves and cost the public 10.9 billion dollars annually (Hamilton Ventura, 2012). These staggering numbers can change if we start providing The Development Assets, created by the Search Institute, to our youth; this is a guarantee. These assets are 40 research-based encouraging qualities that affect adolescent development. By providing them to our youth, we are helping them to become caring, responsible, and productive adults. These assets have be proven to work and are quickly becoming the most positive youth development in the United States and globally. All across the world and now in other countries it is apparent the positive affect that the assets have been for all cultural and socioeconomic groups (Institute, 2007). Also, high-risk behavior is better predicted by the level of Developmental Assets one has, than their family, resources, or location. However, like with Rockdale County, most of our adolescents will have less than 40 Assets (Institute, 2007). The Developmental Assets include things such as family support, positive family communication, and service to others as well as integrity, honesty, and restraint to name a few. These assets are a stepping stone and a guideline for parents. They can especially be used in a â€Å"busy† lifestyle with both parents working full-time jobs. This checklist allows no excuses for parents who are at a loss and do not know what to do with their child. It also teaches parents and teachers how to hold the children responsible and how to discipline the children instead of allowing their actions to continue. These assets can be appropriately used from the time they are 3 years old through adolescence, and would help in never seeing situation like Rockdale County arise. The more Developmental Assets that a person is exposed to the more likely they are to thrive and be successful. Researchers show that parents can set their children up for a bright future and almost guarantee that they will not be involved in high-risk behavior such as drug and alcohol use, sexual activity and drug use, by providing more assets to their child (Institute, 2007). When our adolescents have more assets they are more diverse, have better opportunities and less likely to become involved in high-risk behaviors. There are also a few Developmental Assets that can possibly help our children to prolong their puberty. One external asset of empowerment is safety, which can be considered as the normal external world but also internal. Parents are responsible for what their children use as far as cleaning products and the food they eat, which both contain chemicals and can increase onset puberty. It is the parent’s responsibility to provide safe and desirable products and food for their children. This also leads to obesity, as it can promote onset maturation. Another external asset is constructive use of time; this means that children should participate in weekly sports club or organization within the school or community. By keeping our children active there will be less room for obesity. Another contribution to onset maturation was the absentee father, which is also covered in the assets in the support section; it states that family should provide children with a constant loving and supporting relationship. Some reasons for an absent father cannot always be avoided; however, providing the child’s father that just chooses to be absent may be swayed if he were introduced to the determent it would cause his daughter. Again, following the Developmental Assets will not only allow us to prolong puberty in girls but also allow us to provide a promising future for our children. Before researching and learning more about sexual behavior in our youth I would have said that if there were sexual education classes in our schools that they shou ld be kept to a minimum and not go into much detail on the topic, this is because of how I grew up. As a family and a school we were not open about our sexuality at all, nor did we have sexual education in our school system. And I personally, did not engage in high-risk sexual behavior nor did I know it was a concern. This could be contributed to my own Developmental Assets that my parents provided me with as there were very few, if any, that I was not given. My views have changed drastically on the need for better and more thorough sexual education programs in our schools after seeing the drastic change in numbers of teen pregnancy and STIs. We have to prevent the age of youth engaging in sexual activity dropping each year; it is a great concern and our responsibility to educate them in schools. We should provide the parents and teachers education classes addressing these issues as they may not have been educated themselves. Schools should make information more available to parents and maybe they will see the importance of this issue. Brochures that address concerns and causes for onset puberty would be beneficial to parents, and also providing information to parents at PTO meetings, and other meetings when they already have the parent’s attention. Our schools are concerned with meetings about budgets and addressing lunch programs and ignoring important issues such as sexual development. It is one thing to teach our students, but we must also teach their parents. Advocate for Youth reports the effectiveness of sexual education in schools has contributed to lower numbers in teen pregnancy, lower numbers of youth engaging in unprotected sex, and also delayed initiation of sexual behavior altogether (McKeon, 2006). I think this proves that sexual education in our schools without a doubt needed. Schools can provide sexual development information at correct ages instead of local news and radio stations trying to stop the spread of sexual activity and STIs. I know now just riding in the car with my daughter in the middle of the day listening to the radio with my daughter, there are condom commercials. She is 7 years old and should not be exposed to that for many years to come. I think the internet and television are far worse and if we are not around to monitor our children from a young age then they will be more likely to partake in these kinds of activities. School is the place to educate our children where they can ask questions and learn from adults, not just assuming on their own and among their peers. We can also offer students counseling and behavioral interventions, hopefully before, but especially after children like Rockdale County, as this would provide both parents and students to find out the underlying cause for wanting to engage in sexual activity. If counseling and treatment were more readily available student would not continue to engage in inappropriate behavior and quite possibly be prevented from becoming teen parents as we also saw with the Rockdale county students. These counseling sessions and treatments can be a more intense version of the sexual education classes in our schools that can provide students who are already sexually active and those who want to become sexually active. They can provide both pre as well as post STI test counseling so that teens can recognize symptoms of these infections, be encouraged to let their partner know, and not go untreated. Also, counseling and intervention should use condom promotion to influence students to practice safe sex and lower the risk of teen pregnancy. By providing public awareness and education to our educators, parents, and students we reduce the number of girls that have onset puberty. Parents being taught to be supportive during adolescents, which can be a difficult and confusing time for students, is more important than ever. With the improvement of sexual education programs taught in our school systems, parents and teachers can adequately prepare students for the negative effects of sexual activity before it is too late. The numbers of adolescents engaging in sexual activity, STIs and teen pregnancies can be reduced. References: Caal, Selma M. (2008) Adolescent Sexual Development: Contextualizing a Cognitive Process in the Decision to Engage in Protective or Risky Sexual Behavior. George Mason University.UMI. Web. 14 Dec. 2013. http://denhamlab.gmu.edu/Theses and Dissertations PDFs/Caal2008.pdf>. CDC. (2011). Effective HIV and STD Prevention Programs for Youth.Sexual Behaviors.http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/sexualbehaviors/effective_programs.htm Gentry, J. (2002). Developing Assests. Washington: American Physcological Assosication. Hamilton, B., Ventura, S. (2012). NCHS Data Brief. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved December 18, 2013, from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db89.htm Headlee, K. (2010). Growth and Development, Ages 13 to 17à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ What You Need to Know. Developing Adolescents, 1, 7. Retrieved December 16, 2013, from http://lee.ifas.ufl.edu/FCS/FCSPubs/Fact_Sheets/Growth_and_Development_13-17.pdf McKeon, B. (2006). Effective Sex Education. Advocates for Youth. Retrieved December 19, 2013, from http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/publications450 Parent, A. (2003). The Timing Of Normal Puberty And The Age Limits Of Sexual Precocity: Variations Around The World, Secular Trends, And Changes After Migration. Endocrine Reviews, 24(5), 668-671. Parke, R. D. Gauvain, M. (2009).Child psychology: A contemporary viewpoint(7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. Ross, B. (1999). The Lost Children of Rockdale County. PBS. Retrieved December 21, 2013, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/georgia/interviews/beth.html Institute. (2007). 40 Developmental Assets. Search Institute. Retrieved December 12, 2013, from http://www.search-institute.org/what-we-study/developmental-assets Sexually transmitted infections (STIs). (2013). WHO. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs110/en/

The Tourism Industry In Malaysia Tourism Essay

The Tourism Industry In Malaysia Tourism Essay This chapter includes parts. Part 1 is about the background of the tourism industry in Malaysia. Part 2 is about the problem statement. The following part is about the objectives of study and hypotheses of the study. Last part is significance of the study. The tourism industry in Malaysia can be considered as one of the most important and strategic industries in the Malaysia sector. Compared with other industry sector in Malaysia, the tourism industry has been estimated to boost the Gross Domestic Income so that Malaysia can be a developed nation by 2020. For example, the estimation about China tourism industry is expand accordingly to Table 1 with market share of 8.6% and will have a drastically growth in future around 8.0% in year 2020. Since the china have focusing on increase the tourism industry to boost the gross domestic income, Malaysia government are also trying to promote Malaysia as tourism country especially through a lot of advertising from inside or outside of Malaysia region. Currently, there are advertising Malaysia tourism industry with the slogan of Malaysia Truly Asia. The Malaysia tourism industry are developing because from the above table 2 show that the number of hotel was supply in Malaysia are there same amount that is 2,373 from to 2008 to 2009 but the number of hotel in every state are increasing especially for Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Perak, Pulau Pinang, Johor and Sabah . There are only two state which numbers of hotel are decreasing are Putrajaya and Pahang. Furthermore, the total numbers of room supply are increasing about 1.9% from 165739 rooms to 168844 rooms for 2009. According to the table 2, there are increasing numbers of hotel and rooms by state showing the trend of tourist are increasing. The tables 3 are showing the number of tourist arrival from outside of Malaysia on year 2008 and 2009.The total number of foreigner tourist arrival Malaysia are increasing from 22052488 people to 23646191 people and the percentage increase about 7.2%. There are some factors which lead to encourage outside tourist to visit Malaysia, although there are a barrier of distance between other country and Malaysia but the number of foreigner are still increasing from year 2008 to 2009. Although there are distance but the tourism keep visiting Malaysia from one year to one year. 1.3 Problem Statement With the fast development of information communication technologies (ICTs) and the expansion of the Internet has affected the tourism industry structures around the world. New technologies have been adopted in the tourism industry in lot of country for more than 30 years, and the trend is likely to continue into the future. For example China, as a fast-growing developing country in Asia, is gaining importance in the international tourism market for its historical and cultural attractiveness as a destination. It is also becoming a booming tourism source country as its population starts travelling overseas. This study examines how the ICT and Internet gradually change the tourism industry structure in China; how important such changes are, and to where such changes will lead Chinas tourism industry. Does Malaysia have the same situation such as China? In this research, the main purpose to conduct is to examine the use of information technology on Malaysias tourism agencies. As we know ITs become instrumental to boost their competitiveness in the tourism industries. The evolution of ITs processing power in the last decade have change their capabilities as they constantly increase the ability of technology to influence the tourism industry. With the innovation in technology, ensure the tourism industry bigger market which had leaded to increase the Gross Domestic Income. Moreover, as the technology going advance bring lot change to tourism industry and bring more advantage to this industry. What are the factors that give a positive impact to tourism from the use of information technology? This survey being conducted to explorer the factor that encourages the use of information technology on Malaysias tourism agencies. Other than that, as many tourism agencies acknowledge that the impacts of information technology to Malaysia tourism industry are becoming more obvious nowadays. Today tourism industries are very different compare to era of 90s, especially the trend of tourist are changing also has change drastically especially after population of human is increase from year to year. Is that socio-economic influence a tourist choosing their vacation? Socio-economic is the study of the relationship between economic activity and social life. Socio-economic includes age, salaries, education, gender and others. Both high salaries and low salaries tourist will choose the dissimilar vacation. The level education also may effect for the choosing of one location for vacation. Males and females are also preferred to difference location for vacation. Mostly probably we will know what are the personal traits of tourist which lead them to choose one location as their vacation? As the diffusion of information technology occurs globally lead a use of different type of information technology for Malaysia tourism agencies. For example in tourism is the re-engineering of the booking process, which becomes rationalized and enables both consumers and the industry to save more time especially in identifying, reserving and purchasing tourism products. Moreover, tourists will be able to browse through the Internet and identify a rich variety of source from different information technology in order to make travel choices suited to their personal requirements. For example the Computer Reservation Systems (CRSs), Global Distribution Systems (GDSs), the emerging super highway by using the Internet and the World Wide Web and other information technology. Which is the most capable type of information technology being use by the tourist especially when they wanted to go for a vacation in Malaysia? 1.4 Objectives of study The objectives are to examine the use of information technology in Malaysias tourism industry. The specific objectives are: To identify factor that encourages the use of information technology on Malaysias tourism industry. To examine the tourist personnel trend from the innovation of information technology on Malaysias tourism industry. To examine the relationship between different type of information technology on Malaysias tourism industry. 1.5 Hypotheses of the study Based on the study, we are finding out whether the factor that encourage use of information technology on Malaysias tourism industry got relate with the use of different type of information technology through the tourist personal trend from innovation of information technology on Malaysias tourism industry. There are list of for the hypothesis development: H1: Factors that encourage use of information technology will predict significantly the different type of information technology. H2: There will be a significantly relationship between factors that encourage use of information technology and tourist personal trend from the innovation of information technology H3: tourist personal trend from the innovation of information technology will significantly predict the use of different type of information technology. H4: tourist personal trend from the innovation of information technology will mediate the relationships between that encourage use of information technology and the use of different type of information technology. 1.6 Significance of the study This study will show the trend of tourism industry in Malaysia can help academicians or practitioner to improve and enhance their understanding about the factors that encourage use of information technology are the most important factor in Malaysia tourism industry and how it can how it can give impact to the use of different type of information technology in tourism industry through the trend of tourist personnel trend from innovation of information technology. Through this study also can help the people of this country to identify the drastic changing in tourism industry nowadays because of the influence of information technology in this industry. As a result, most of tourism agencies going to use information technology to advertise and this encourage tourist choose different type of information technology for purpose to travel. The finding from the study can help the tourism agencies or researcher to more understand the evolution of ITs processing power in the last decade have change their capabilities as they constantly increase the ability of technology to influence the tourism industry. There is different capable type of information technology being use by the tourist especially when they wanted to go for a vacation. With the huge no of tourist from outside and inside of Malaysia has leaded to increase the Gross Domestic Income. Besides that, the trend of tourist are changing also has change drastically especially after population of human is increase from year to year. Through this study, can help tourism or researcher more focus on the personnel trend of tourist to ensure every aspect of tourist behavior being update accordingly to current situation. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter is discussing about use of information technology in tourism industry. 2.2.1 Literature review As the tourism industry are growing up in other countries like China tourism industry compare with Malaysia tourism. Although with new form of tourism has grow rapidly but the size and destination of Chinese outbound travel are still become an obstacle to China because of their government policies. The CPC Central Committee at its conference about economy in late 1998 giving opinion that the tourist industry as one of the new growth points of the national economy in the years to come (Qian, 1999) Therefore, Hong Kong, Macao, some of the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asia Nations) countries, Australia and South Korea have choose China as their major target market by setting up a variety of promotion campaigns. Based on the state statistics, among the countrys 5,201 hotels entitled to accommodate overseas visitors in 1997, 734 were joint venture hotels with over 330,000 hotel bed-spaces, making up 23.5 per cent of the grand total of hotel bed-spaces in the country (CNTA, 1998). Incre asingly, ICTs play a critical role for the competitiveness of tourism organizations and destinations as well as for the entire industry as a whole (UNWTO, 2001).Based on the previous researcher, tourists who searched on the Internet mostly spend more time at their destinations as compared to those who consult other information sources.(Bonn, Furr, Susskind, 1998; Luo, Feng, Cai, 2004). There are other countries resources about tourism industry which to use as variable to measure factor the use of information technology that affect Malaysia tourism industry. By using some example about the advantage of information technology especially online application as variable to test the factor will give impact to the Malaysias tourism. Those variables may include pricing, less time spent on waiting and planning more time on enjoyment, increased the number of choice for consumer, effective mechanism to air complain, and many other factors. Other than that, the internet provides a best solution to sell their products globally to potential travelers at anytime. For example, the supplier can monitor their servers by depend on the display information of product and services at an electronic speed (Inkpen, 1998: Law, 2000). As in the modern era, Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) have impact on the process of how business is performed and how organizations compete with it (Porter, 1985, 2001; Porter Millar, 1985). There are reason of encourages the use of travel agencies is because personal agencies be able to provide personal information and advice to traveler (Palmer and McCole(1999) ; and walle(1996). For tourist, they make reservations and receive tickets at home through travel websites which can save their time on waiting and planning (OConnor Frew, 2001). As we know, there are factor which emphasizes the online booking for air ticket because this will convenient the tourist. Based on information technology applications, there are also e-shopping which provides a large geographic coverage that allows consumers to buy from a great variety of product when they shop at home (Peterson et al., 1997). Moreover, ICTs also become a very effective mechanism for consumers to make air complaints. Based on previous record there are less than 5 percent of customers who were dissatisfied and already voiced out their complaints using online application (Albrecht Zemke, 1985). For example Electronic Word-Of-Mouth (WOM) becomes useful tool to voice complaints about brands through websites, chat rooms and consumer forums (Gelb Sundaram, 2002). There are some sources call Untied.co is probably one of the most famous examples for one individual who not only used his website to complain against United Airlines himself but also to accumulate thousands of complaints from other traveler. The research being carried up to know whether Malaysia tourist using information technology when they want to travel because of is depend on the effective mechanism to voice some complain. Nowadays, individuals have enough power to take on powerful organizations such as airlines (Buhalis, 2004).This show how effe ctive the impact of information technology on tourism industry around whole world. In addition, according to (Shea, Enghagen, and Khullar, 2004) have illustrated a real case Yours is a very bad Hotel Which publish the unpleasant experience made by at least seven newspapers and magazines report. In this literature review, (Werthner and Ricci, 2004) have found that the tourism industry is leading through e-Commerce applications. This application being applied in many Malaysia tourism agencies because of the effeteness of information technology. The information technology was fully supports by Three-dimensional (3D) interactive websites have attracted the online consumer to do online purchases, and to create loyalty (Fiore, Kim Lee, 2005). Furthermore, tourists can get visualized tourism information from digital maps with aerial and satellite images in both two dimensions and even three dimensions (Raggam Almer, 2005).With this kind of information technology will lead to the factor which encourages Malaysia tourism industry to growth stable. This study reviewed the literature to determine factors encourage the use of information technology on Malaysias tourism industry. In this literature review, the objective show that the impacts of information technology to Malaysia tourism industry are becoming more obvious nowadays until change the personnel trait of the tourist when choosing one location as their vacation. This may involve the socio-economic about study of the relationship between economic activity and social life. Travel and holidays are one of the most expensive items purchased regularly by households around the world and it represents a significant proportion of individuals annual budget. The Internet has changed tourism consumer behavior dramatically (Mills Law, 2004). Moreover, majority of the customers search for travel related information, air ticket bookings using online, room reservations by online and other by online purchases themselves by travel agencies to undertake this process for them (Morrison et al., 2001). According to (Gursoy and McCleary, 2004) already have developed a comprehensive theoretical model that integrated all p sychological, economics, and processing approaches into a cohesive whole for understanding tourists information by seeking their behavior. Normally, through the increasingly of profiling will bring a better personalization, customization and interaction between consumers and tourism organizations. According to (Pouloudi, Vassilopoulou, and Ziouvelou, 2002) have stated that the Internet users profiles mostly divide into seven e-social factors, namely: geography, culture, regulation, economic, professional, social capital, and social structure. Although the online travel sales and marketing volume keeps increasing, they not depend fully to information technology application but traveler or tourist still depend on travel agents for some human touch and service( Palmer and McCole and Travel Association of America, 1998). Mostly probably when the web users search for travel information, they will tend to browse online about their holiday vacation through multiple websites. As a result, their start finding information in a generic search engine likes Google. By ensure there are systematic applications such as recommender system to ensure assistance in the social process of indicating about what options are better suited in a specific case for some individuals (Resnick Varian, 1997, Gretzel et al,, 2004). With this recommender system can provide valuable information to assist consumers decision making process (Ricci, 2002). Other than that, with this kind of recommender system can help travelers when facing complex decision-making process by correlating those to other consumers and their preferences and also by identifying better customer requirements (Fesenmaier, Werthner, Wà ¶ber, 2003, Ricci Werthner, 2002, 2006). In Malaysia, majority of the tourist still depend on tourism agencies to choose their vacation. Selection of vacation destinations and the choice of leisure activities throughout the vacation, and with other travel-related decisions are based on personality (Mardrigal, 1995). In some of the information search being make, behavior has a significant relationship with demographic and lifestyle characteristics. For example in online ticket reservation booking for room of hotel which can allow consumers to set their online profile and to include personal data that suit their preference. Thus, with such application can support tourism organizations to provide better service in future to the consumer especially the tourist. In tourism if there are understandings how different market segments appreciate different tourism products or services also can increase the possibilities to put suitable products forward for customer. For example, Lastminute.com is one of the web collects suitable information to personalize the weekly newsletter that being sent to consumers and also trace what parts of the newsletter are accessed by most of the consumers so can provide the right personalize in future. For tourism agencies in Malaysia, there are some web which provides demogr aphics and life cycle information about customer profiling. For example, when choosing a vacation for holidays depend on joint decision-making process between husbands and wives mostly. Other than that, children also can play a key role in the decision making process when involve choosing one location for vacation (Wang et al., 2004).With the attractive of the web because of games and chat-rooms on the Internet on some of the travel agencies web encourage some children often seek fun. As a result, children become the target of tourism attractions especially by provide some of interactive games in order to attract children to visit and engage with their websites (Tufte Rasmusse, 2003). Nowadays, consumer trend when using information technology to search information involve all layer of age. According to (Graeupl, 2006) the consumers aged between 50 to 60 are likely to become the most higher category involve in searching for flight information and accommodation are but most of them w ere not interested in package holidays. As a result, probably we will know there are different personal traits of tourist which lead them to choose one location as their vacation. 2.2 Proposed Theoretical Framework There are independent variables such as the factor that can influence type of information technology on Malaysias tourism industry. The independent variables in this research are factor that encourages the use of information technology on Malaysias tourism industry and the personnel traits of tourist are mediating variable. Factor there are encourage the use of information technology include the element of: Require less time and planning Price cheaper Effective mechanism to air complain Easy for making payment Increase of the number of choice for tourist The use of it without border or region barrier Virtual communities Meanwhile the dependent variable is the type of information technology use in tourism industry. The effective between factors that encourage the use of information technology on type of information technology through the personnel trait of tourist is show in diagrammed in figure 1: Independent Variables Factor of the use of IT on Malaysia tourism industry Time and planning Price Effective to air complain Easy for making payment number of choice for tourist The use without border or region barrier Virtual communities Dependent Variables Demographic variable Type of information technology on tourism industry Personnel trait of tourist Figure 1: Theoretical framework to describe effect between the factors that encourage the use of IT on type of information technology on tourism industry through personnel trait of tourist. 2.3 Hypothesis Development: A hypothesis of this study will develop to check the factor there are encourage the use of information technology on type of information technology through personnel trait of tourist. There are sample of 100 survey form being taken from different state in Malaysia to test the variable. The question is whether there is an effect between these variables. H01: Factors that encourage use of information technology will predict significantly the different type of information technology. Ha1: Factors that encourage use of information technology will not predict significantly the different type of information technology. H02: There will be a significantly relationship between factors that encourage use of information technology and tourist personnel trend from the innovation of information technology. Ha2: There will be no significantly relationship between factors that encourage use of information technology and tourist personnel trend from the innovation of information technology. H03: Tourist personnel trend from the innovation of information technology will significantly predict the use of different type of information technology. Ha3: Tourist personnel l trend from the innovation of information technology will not significantly predict the use of different type of information technology. H04: Tourist personnel trend from the innovation of information technology will mediate the relationships between that factor encourage use of information technology and the use of different type of information technology. Ha4: Tourist personnel trend from the innovation of information technology will not mediate the relationships between factor that encourage use of information technology and the use of different type of information technology. Chapter 3: Methodology 3.0 Introduction This chapter describes the research methodology used throughout the study. The study is to measure what is relationship between variables: factors that encourage the use of information technology, type of information technology and the personal trait of tourist. Topic included in this chapter is the overall research design which consists of seven chapters. First part is about the introduction, seconds is about the research design, third is data collection method ,fourth is sampling design, fourth is about the researcher instrument ,fifth involve measurement scales, sixth is data processing and last part is about data analysis statistic . 3.1 research design In the research design, there are an answer questions like how or why in designing the questionnaire (Robert K. Yin, 1994). In developing the questionnaire, there no fast rules. However there are some guideline that help prevent the most common mistake being make by researchers in develop a questionnaire. There criteria must be emphasized such as to avoid leading and loaded questions. Moreover, use of questionnaire techniques to collect data for this study. By planning on the research question can ensure the two criteria a questionnaire to meet the researchers purpose (Zigmund, 2002).The questionnaire must have relevancy and accuracy to objective. The use of word may bring to some of misleading thought (Herbert Spencer, 1820-1903). Thus, the questionnaire must be based on capability to avoid any order bias. There are also quantitative data which the number that can be used to measure the variable. There are either descriptive which mean subjects usually measured once or experimental which mean subjects measured before and after a treatment in the quantitative research designs (Will G Hopkins, 2000). When measurement the variable from theory it more on the numbers, and the neutrality makes them become the source of remedial suggestions ( Kuhn, 1961). Other than that, quantitative data very efficient because it be able to test the hypotheses but may miss some of contextual detail (Miles Huberman,1994).Moreover, the qualitative approach is a general way of thinking about conducting qualitative research. It describes, either explicitly or implicitly, In-Depth Interviews. 3.2. Data collection method Data refer to simply facts of certain phenomena (Zigmund, 2002). There are two type of data collection which divides into primary data and secondary data. The observed or collected directly from first-hand experience is called primary data .Other than that, published data and the data collected in the past or other parties, is called secondary data. Moreover, all data are classified into qualitative or quantitative from the primary data and secondary data. 3.2.1 Primary data This study utilized primary data collected survey in different state in Malaysia. A questionnaire was sent to a random sample of 100 respondents near to vacation which have many tourists near different state in Malaysia. A personal questionnaire was designed to solicit firstly: socio-economic profile of respondents; and secondly, to measure some consumer attitudinal dimension towards fundamental aspects of choosing a vacation using information technology which include time and planning, price, effective to air complain, easy for making payment, number of choice for tourist, the use without border or region barrier, and virtual communities. The socio-economic variables include: age, gender, race, education, income level and occupation. Likert scales were employed to measure the intensity of the consumers attitude towards the proposed concepts or statements. (Fatimah Mohd Arshad et al, 2001). 3.2.2 Secondary data Secondary data are usually historical, already assembly, and do not require access to respondents or subjects. The fact finding of it is aimed at collecting descriptive information to support decision making. The use of secondary data is to get more accurate information. Secondary data being used as the  research design  due to primary research and can provide a guide which the collected primary data results can be compared to it. 3.3 Sampling design 3.3.1 Target population Majority of the target population is focus on tourist from different state in Malaysia. 3.3.2 Sampling Elements The study is to choose different tourist from different age, race and country. 3.3.3 Sampling Technique There are several ways of sampling technique for taking a sample. The methods are probability and non-probability sampling techniques. A  probability sampling  scheme is one in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined. Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in which the units of the sample are selected on the basic of person judgment or convenience. Convenient sampling is a procedure used to obtain those units or people conveniently available. Moreover, convenience sampling being use because it is a low cost and the list of population was took randomly. 3.3.4 Sampling Size In this study, survey form being distributed to 100 respondents of tourist from different age from different area. 3.4 Research Instrument There are questionnaire being used for data collection. The questionnaire involve the combination of the questionnaire on factors that encourage the use of information technology, personal trait of tourist, and the type of information technology being use by tourist in tourism industry. The questionnaire being set up and modified based on the objective of study. The factors that encourage the use of information technology The questionnaire on factors that encourage the use of information technology was measured using the factor scale developed by (Dimitrios Buhalis and Maria Cristina Licata, 2004).The scale comprised of seven parts such as time and planning, price, effective to air complain, easy for making payment, number of choice for tourist, the use without border or region barrier, and virtual communities. There are 5-point likert scale was use ranging from strongly disagree(1), disagree(2), partly agree(3), agree(4), strongly agree(5). The personal trait of tourist The personnel trait of tourist was measured using example develop by (Rob Law, Kenith Law, and James Wong, 2004).The questions pertaining to the respondents gender, ethnic, age, income, marital status, education, employees status, country origin, and travel purpose. Respondent need to choose one of preference that are suitable for them .Moreover, the choices of questions are already classified. 3. The different type of information technology The different type of information technology was measured using different type IT scale developed by (D. Buhalis and M.C. Licata, 2004). The scale consisted of type such as World Wide Web, Computer Reservation Systems (CRSs), Global Distribution Systems (GDSs) and other. The 5-point likert scale was use ranging from strongly disagree(1), disagree(2), partly agree(3), agree(4), strongly agree(5). 3.5 Measurement Scales A scale being defined as any category of item which being progressively according to value or magnitude. For normally there are four types of measurement scales used in research such as nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. In this study, only nominal and interval scales being use. Interval scales being use to test variable in section 1 and 3 and measure the different in the choice making of respondent. Nominal scale used in section 2 to measure the demographic variable of respondent. 3.6 Data processing In this study, the SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Science) software version 17 will use to process the data being collected. SPSS data input be coding and transform to output through SPSS software. All the input be collected being put into the SPSS input to get the more accurate and reliable. 3.7 Data Analysis 3.7.1 Descriptive Analysis By changing the raw data into a form that will ensure the output is easy to understand and interpret it known as descriptive analysis (Zikmund, 2002). It also can rearr